Erik Huizing
HTST 303 L01

Why was Spanish exploration of the Aztec and Inca Empires so Successful?

	"All of us were full of fear, because we were so few in number and
we had penetrated so far into a land where we could not hope to receive
reinforcements." This echoes the thoughts of many Spaniards during the
explorations of the Aztec and Inca empires. What was it that enabled the
conquistadors of Spain to destroy two advanced civilization of the New
World? How is it that in each case, the Spanish armies, often numbering
less than two hundred men, were often victorious against the much larger
armies of the Aztec and Inca empires? Was it the Spaniard's use of
firearms that lead them to victory again, and again? To answer these
questions, it will be necessary to investigate the composition of both the
Spanish, and the Aztec and Inca armies. In addition, the tactics used by
both sides will help illustrate why the Spanish were victorious so often.
Finally, illustration of these tactics in action will serve to reinforce
why the Spanish were victorious.

	The exploring Spanish armies were composed of four types of
troops: infantry, archers, cavalry, and musketeers. The organisation of
these armies were usually such that infantry made up the largest
proportion of the force. In general, the size of a typical army was
approximately two hundred soldiers. At Cajamarca, Pizzaro had with him 168
soldiers, including 62 horsemen and twelve musketeers. Similarly, when
Cortes marched to Tenochtitlan, he had less than five hundred troops with
him. Yet both these men commanded victory again and again. Although these
numbers seem small, these armies were often supplemented by vast amounts
of allied native warriors as well.

	One decided Spanish advantage was their use of steel weapons.
Swords, daggers, lances, and arrow heads, were all made of high quality
steel. Spanish infantry were armed with steel swords, daggers. Further
protection came from steel breast plates or chain mail for the chest,
helmets, and shields. Spanish armour was more effective at defining the
Conquistadors against Aztec and Inca clubs, than the native's armour was
at defending against steel swords and arrows.  The combined use of swords
and armour made the Spanish soldiers literally invisible against the Aztec
and Inca weapons. The result of this is that in nearly every major battle,
few, if any, Spaniards were killed or even severely injured. One notable
exception was Cortes' retreat from Tehochtitlan, where he lost all his
gunpowder weapons, and almost two thirds of his troops. However chaos and
confusion were mainly to blame for these losses. This retreat however, was
the exception, not the rule.

	These two major conquests happened after shortly after the
introduction of new gunpowder weapons. However, these were still rather
crude weapons, and until they were further refined, gunpowder weapons,
such as the harquebus (predecessor to the real musket) and the falconet (a
small field piece), were not as effective as the bow and arrow, and more
recently, the crossbow. These human-powered weapons were more reliable,
and could achieve much higher rates of fire than their gunpowder
counterparts. However, in the close quarters of many of the battles in
which hand-to-hand combat issued, archers and bowmen were of little use.

	Both Pizzaro, and Cortes recognised the importance of cavalry.
Their manoeuvrability and speed make them valuable assets on the
battlefield. On patrol, cavalry could outrun native sentries, rendering it
possible to easily launch surprise attacks. The riders would typically
carry lances, or steel swords, and would be capable of riding through
enemy lines unscathed. In addition to the riders wearing armour, the
horses wore breastplates as well, presenting their enemies with a
formidable opponent. Prior to the landing of the Spanish, the Aztecs had
never seen a horse before, and believed the rider and horse were a single
creature. The few horsemen that were killed were beheaded along with their
horses, the heads later paraded by the Aztecs. In battle, the horseman has
the advantage of height over the enemy. Combining it with speed and
manoeuvrability, made cavalry instrumental in nearly every battle the
Spanish fought.

	The final group that made up the Spanish armies were the
musketeers. Because the purpose of the musket (or harquebus, as it was
called) was so similar to that of bow and arrows and crossbows, Cortes and
Pizzaro often included the two in the same group when enumerating their
forces. The harquebus was a primitive musket, capable of firing a stone or
metal projectile about half an inch in diameter. Most importantly, the
ignition of the powder made a thunderous crack and a bright flash when
fired. However, the harquebus was a large and cumbersome weapon. Reloading
too, was clumsy, and cost valuable time in battle where the musketeer was
vulnerable. Despite its shortcomings, a group of musketeers firing
simultaneously could cause tremendous damage. In addition to the
harquebus, there were also pieces of field artillery, which typically came
into play in the siege of cities, rather than in field battles.

	Many primary sources describe the Aztec warriors as dedicated,
fierce fighters: "they are skilful, stalwart, and tireless ... very
warlike, and fearless of death" (conquistadors, p 168). Initially, this
ferocity struck fear into the hearts of the Spanish soldiers. The
combination of an aggressive fighting style with a frightening style of
dress, and massive numbers made the Aztec warriors a force to be reckoned
with. They armed themselves with bows and arrows, as well as spears and
slings. It was not uncommon to find a warrior carrying all three weapons.
For the most part, these were stone-tipped weapons, although bone would
also be used. For protection, quilted cotton covered with heavy cloth,
followed by different coloured feathers to distinguish between divisions.
Further protection came from shields made of solid cane, and helmets made
from the heads of tigers, lions or wolves. Overall, the appearance of
these warriors was very frightening to their opponents. The downfall of
the native warriors was their fear of the horse, only made worse by the
damage it was capable of.

	The conquistadors used a variety of tactics while exploring New
Spain. Tactics ranging from pitting different tribes of Aztecs against
each other, to ambush and false retreat to simple deception.  Finally, at
each battle, there were key differences in fighting styles which aided the
Spanish. Aztec warriors would attempt to capture for the purpose of
enslaving whenever possible. The Spanish on the other hand fought to kill,
rarely taking prisoners because of their lack of means to retain them.
Because of the lack of communications between the Aztecs and the Incas,
Pizzaro was able to use the same tactics as Cortes with a high rate of
success. The Spanish knowledge and use of tactics came from previous
experiences on European battlefields, and from fighting a variety of
adversaries. The Aztecs and Incas on the other hand, had only had battle
experience in fighting amongst themselves. In addition, with most soldiers
falling into one category, there was no need to develop special tactics
that included the use of cavalry or musketeers, for example. The use of
tactics enabled both Cortes and Pizzaro to maximise the effectiveness of
their small armies. Cavalry would first charge the enemy line, creating
chaos, and allow the footmen to do more damage. Musketeers would fire in
volleys, maintaining higher rates of fire than otherwise would be
attainable.

	When Cortes landed at Veracruz, the Aztec empire was already
divided among warring tribes. These inter-tribal feuds made it impossible
for the Aztecs to unite against the Spaniards, making Cortes' job much
easier. Cortes quickly allied himself with tribes such as the Calcans, who
were in conflict with the Culcans. The benefits of this alliance to Cortes
were twofold. First, it increased the size of his army. The Calcans
committed tens of thousands of troops to aid Cortes in his conquest of the
city of Tenochtitlan. Second, his allies were the unwitting participants
in the destruction of their own civilization. In joining Cortes, they
merely delayed their own destruction. The choice was an easy one to make
however. The Calcans, as with many others, saw Cortes as a saviour,
someone to help them battle their enemies. They were better off to join
Cortes, with the benefit of him helping them fight their enemies, than
opposing him. Thus, even though these alliances were mutually beneficial,
in the long run, the Spanish stood to gain much more than their Aztec
allies.

	Fransisco Pizzaro's trap at Cajamaraca is a prime example of a
successful ambush. Pizzaro had hidden his horsemen in the streets outside
the plaza at Cajamarca. Further preparations also included attaching bells
to the horses to create noise, and add to the confusion of the ambush. The
rest of his troops were hidden in a building, and would attack on the
signal of a musket shot. Athallupa was lured to the plaza with many
noblemen, and officials, to meet with Pizzaro. Pizzaro sent out his friar
to attempt to convert Athallupa to Christianity. Athallupa outraged the
friar by refusing him. A musket shot was fired to signal Pizzaro's troops,
and the massacre began. Pizzaro's ambush was well planned and carried out.
The small confines of the plaza effectively trapped Athallupa and his
followers, most of whom were unarmed. Between the cavalry charges, the
musket fire, and the Spaniards pushing forward with their swords to
capture Athallupa, over seven thousand Incas lost their lives. Further
indication of Pizzaro's success is that not a single Spaniard died in the
fighting. Ironically, the only injured Spaniard was Pizzaro, whos arm was
accidentally cut by another Spaniard, while escorting Athallupa from the
plaza.

	Prior to the recon quest of Tenochtitlan, Cortes had gone about
attacking cities that had betrayed him, and reaffirming previous
alliances. These battles took him to Tesaico, Tacuba, and Coadnabaced,
among others. A particularly well executed false retreat occurred not far
from Suchimilco. After the initial attack on the Culcans, Cortes had his
troops reassemble on the opposite side of a hill, obscured from view of
the Culcans. Then, he had some infantry begin to climb the hill. This
created the illusion that it was safe for the Tasacaltecal to leave.
Meanwhile, Cortes circled round the hill with fifteen horsemen and "we
fell upon them so that in a very short time, more than five hundred of
them perished". Other events have been similar. Cortes would deliberately
send a small expeditionary force ahead with two goals. First is
reconnaissance, find out any useful information of what lies ahead.
Second, if if any enemies are seen, the expeditionary force would fall
back in a false retreat, and the enemy would happen upon the larger force
who had had time to prepare for an attack. These effective uses of false
retreats gave Cortes an advantage, even if at the time he wasn't fully
prepared for a battle.

	Having knowledge of tactics is one thing, but the successful
application of them in battle is where they become important. This perhaps
is the area where the military abilities of Cortes and Pizzaro truly
shine. It was in battle that these conquistadors did most their damage
directly. While most Aztecs and Incas were killed by diseases rather than
swords, the fighting still had an impact on the local native populations.
Messengers were sent ahead of Cortes to inform the village he was coming.
They would not suffer if they welcomed him. However, those that opposed
were frequently decimated in battle, their villages looted for valuables,
then burned to the ground, leaving the villagers with nothing. This is
precisely the pattern Cortes followed on the second siege of Tenochtitlan.

	Prior to attacking Tenochtitlan the second time, Cortes took a
small exploratory force to gather the information he needed to lay siege
to the city again. In order to assist him, Cortes ordered thirteen
brigantines built, so the siege could take place on land as well as water.
These brigantines would also be used to rapidly move troops to areas of
combat where they would be most useful. Siege is probably the wrong word
for what happened in Tenochtitlan. Much of the fighting took place within
the city, with Aztec defensive positions being destroyed, homes being set
afire, and fighting in the streets. Cortes had field artillery brought in
as well, to aid in the fighting. Prior to engaging the Aztecs, Cortes sent
twenty horsemen with some archers and musketeers to close off the water
supply to Tenochtitlan. The destruction of the Aztec water source put
increasing pressure on their already dwindling resources. Amidst the
fighting in Tenochtitlan, Cortes had many opportunities employ false
retreats. One such event was after setting afire many towers dedicated to
the Aztec idols. As evening drew near, Cortes pulled back his troops, at
which instant they were attacked by the Aztecs. Cortes sent his horsemen
to protect the rear guard. Many natives were killed that evening as they
relentlessly attempted to attack the rear guard, but were cut down by the
Spanish cavalry. Pizzaro also made effective use of his cavalry on the way
to capturing Cuzco. At Jauja, he was victorious thanks to 80 horsemen. A
mere 30 fought at Vilcashuaman, and 40 were used at Cuzco. In each case,
these were battles against tens of thousands of Incas. Eventually the
Incas would learn to defeat cavalry as they pass through narrow ravines,
with their riders dismounted, but never on the battlefield.

	In conclusion, the effects Spanish exploration on the Aztec and
Inca empires were detrimental. It is estimated that prior to its
exploration, the Aztec empire had a population of approximately 20
million. Following Cortes' exploration, it was reduced to a mere 1.6
million. The numbers for the Inca empire are just as atrocious. What
enabled these men to be so successful in their explorations? Militarily,
it was the effective use of cavalry. Provided there were horsemen on the
battlefield, victory was a sure thing. After Athallupa's death, Pizzaro
went on to conquer the rest of the Inca empire. Again, Pizzaro faced
tremendous odds at Jauja, Vilcashuaman, Vilcacongo, and Cuzco, but was
victorious each time, thanks to the Spanish cavalry. The Spanish also had
an invisible ally: European diseases, in particular small pox. When Cortes
finally arrived to reconquer Tenochtitlan, small pox had decimated the
Aztec population, killing man, woman and child alike, indiscriminately.
Many Aztecs were too sick to even get up and defend their cities. It
appeared as if the Spanish won without even needing to fight. Off the
battlefield, Cortes was an excellent diplomat, capable of acquiring native
support for his cause. This was also due, however, to the splits between
the various Aztec tribes. Pizzaro also knew how to take advantage of a
situation, extracting an outrageous ransom for Athallupa, and then killing
him off after he outlived his usefulness. Also, thanks to a lack of
regular communication between the Aztec and Inca empires, Pizzaro was able
to set up his ambush at Cajamarca in a similar fashion to what Cortes had
done ten years earlier, as well as applying what knowledge Cortes had
gained for his own purposes. In some cases, the fearlessness of the Incas
worked against them. At the point where the battle was lost, they would
continue to fight rather than surrender. The Inca devotion to Athallupa at
the ambush at Cajamarca was another incident in which this fearlessness
merely made for more unnecessary casualties. As a reward for their
services encomienda was instituted. This reallocation of native land and
inhabitants turned slaves furthered the decline of morale as well as
prosperity of these empires. In place of producing food, many natives were
put into slavery, mining for gold. As a result, there was no food to feed
the local populations, resulting in further death among the native
population. The combined effect of all these factors sent both the Aztec
and Inca empires into downward spirals from which there would be no
recovery. All these factors, military supremacy, disease, and tactics
meant the Spanish held the upper hand, even when severely outnumbered.
This in turn lead the Spanish to victory, and helped destroy the Aztec and
Inca empires. The ill-effects of "discovery" and exploration of less
advanced civilisations should have been recognised long before Cortes set
foot at Veracruz. Sadly, this never happened, and a similar fate awaited
the native peoples of North America in later chapters of history.

Bibliography:

Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. 
Jared Diamond p. 62-81; 
W. W. Norton & Company Inc.

The Conquistadors: First-person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. 
p. 49-133, 165-181; 
University of Oklahoma Press

History of the Conquest of Peru. 
William H. Prescott p 24-52, 246-265, 383-395; 
J.M. Dent & Sons Limited

Reports on the Discovery of Peru 
Clements R. Markham p 44-69; 
Burt Franklin